SayPro Types of Methods

Annex D provides a description of 34 different methods commonly used for M&E and, in particular, participatory M&E. They have been grouped as follows:

• sampling methods;
• core M&E methods (such as stakeholder analysis and questionnaires);
• discussion methods for groups (such as brainstorming and role plays);
• methods for spatially-distributed information (such as maps and transects);
• methods for time-based patterns of change (such as diaries and photographs);
• methods for analysing relationships and linkages (such as impact flow diagrams and problem trees);
• methods for ranking and prioritising (such as matrices).

You will probably also need to draw on other specialised methods related to specific technical fields, which are clustered under biophysical measurements (Method 5) and cost-benefit analysis (Method 7) in Annex D.By calling on specific technical expertise when developing a detailed M&E plan, you can ensure the inclusion of appropriate specialist methods. Before selecting your methods, first consider three important aspects:

• quantitative versus qualitative methods;
• individual versus group-based methods;
• the extent to which a method can be participatory.

Table 6-2. Examples of multi-purpose M&E methods

Quantitative and Qualitative MethodsQuantitative methods directly measure the status or change of a specific variable, for example, changes in crop yield, kilometres of road built or hours women spend fetching water. Quantitative methods provide direct numerical results.Qualitative methods gather information by asking people to explain what they have observed, do, believe or feel. The output from qualitative methods is textual descriptions.Much information in M&E reports tends to be based on numbers. Quantitative data are clear and precise and are often considered to be more scientifically verifiable. You will always need this kind of information. However, for some performance questions you will need to complement it by asking people about their experiences and opinions.Choosing to use a method to produce or analyse qualitative or quantitative data (see Box 6-4) depends not only on the type of information you are seeking but also on the capacities and resources you have available, how the information will be used and how precise data need to be.Note that the difference between quantitative and qualitative methods is not absolute. Much qualitative information can be quantified. For example, opinions can be clustered into groups and then counted, thereby becoming quantitative. Note, however, that you can never make quantitative information more qualitative. You cannot extract an opinion from a number.

Considering Individual- or Group-Based MethodsThroughout the M&E process – from design, to data collection and analysis – you can choose to use methods to consult with groups or with individuals. Working with individuals can give you more detailed information but it will only give an overview after analysing data from a set of individuals. A group-based method will elicit a more collective perspective – with areas of consensus and divergence – while personal details and perspectives are less likely to emerge. Groups ask more of the facilitator and the quality of discussions depends on the size of the group and how comfortable people are with each other and the topic at hand. Annex D includes one cluster of methods that are particularly suited for group discussions. However, many other methods in Annex D can also be used in a group context.The more people involved at any one M&E event, the greater the importance of good facilitation and planning. The facilitator’s skill will largely determine whether a method is used successfully in a group. Good facilitators will provide suggestions, probe, encourage, redirect and also take notes. They also help manage conflicts by encouraging people to listen to and understand each other’s perspectives.Table 6-3. Pros and cons of working with individuals and groups

What Makes a Method ParticipatoryMany projects are keen to involve primary stakeholders more in M&E. They commonly consider that collecting data from local people using so-called participatory methods is sufficient. Imagine the following scenario. The M&E staff of a project goes to a group of farms to understand if soil nutrient flows have changed as a result of farmer training on soil conservation. They meet the farmers and ask them to sketch maps showing where nutrients enter the farms, how they are used and how they leave, and in particular showing what has changed after soil conservation measures were adopted. The mapping process lasts about two hours, after which the team goes back to the M&E office with the sketched maps to synthesise and analyse the data for a report to the director. At some point, the report is copied and sent to the village. Can you call this mapping process participatory?Participation in M&E is often limited to working with primary stakeholders as information sources, rather than as joint users of information and therefore potential analysts and co-designers of methods. If you have selected the method and use it to get information from people, then you are involved not in a participatory process but in an extractive one. This is fine – unless you are aiming for participatory M&E. In which case, you would involve other stakeholders in choosing and using methods.Many people think there is a set of so-called "participatory" M&E methods, but this is not the case. A method is not inherently participatory or not participatory. Many of the methods useful for M&E can be used in either a participatory or non-participatory way. The participatory impact comes with the way a method is used and who helped select it. The use of a technical method for testing water quality, for example, can become participatory if the community is involved in deciding what aspects of water quality to measure, collecting the data and reviewing the results. On the other hand, if a group is directed to produce a map of the area, there is little discussion, and the map disappears into the project office forever, then this cannot be called participatory mapping. See 2.6 for general considerations for participatory M&E.To ensure that the selection and use of methods is participatory, consider these questions.

1. In what aspect of the M&E methods is participation important? In selection or design of the method, in applying it for data collection or for analysis?
2. Who should ideally be involved in the task at hand? Who needs to help select, design or use the method? Ideally, those who are to use it for collecting or analysis should be involved in selection/design. This can include staff of implementing partners, project staff, primary stakeholders and consultants.
3. Who wants to be involved in what? Not everyone has the time or inclination to participate. This is not a problem, as full participation is neither practical nor possible. Instead, you need to ask those you would like to involve if they are able and interested.
4. What is needed for effective participation? Self-confidence is needed before effective participation is possible. Therefore you need to create the conditions for people to feel free in helping define methods, in testing and adjusting them, in collecting data, etc. This can include providing training or follow-up mentoring, finding the right time and place, offering childcare support, etc.

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